所以,達爾文在《物種起源》中寫道:「可以肯定的是,如果這個『進化』理論是正確的,那麼地球上就已經存在過這樣的東西」,那麼「所有現存物種和滅絕物種之間的中間和過渡環節的數量,一定多得令人難以置信」。⁷⁶(The number of intermediate and transitional links, between all living and extinct species, must have been inconceivably great. But assuredly, if this theory [of evolution] be true, such have lived upon the earth.)
後來,達爾文在《物種起源》中承認:「(不同化石之間)具有鮮明的獨特性以及它們不被無數過渡環節連接在一起,是一個非常明顯的困難……那麼爲什麼不是每個地質構造和每個地層都充滿這樣的中間環節?地質學肯定不會揭示任何此類精細逐步演變的有機鏈;這也許是對我的理論最明顯和最嚴重的反對意見。」 (The distinctiveness of specific forms, and their not being blended together by innumerable transitional links, is a very obvious difficulty…… Why then is not every geological formation and every stratum full of such intermediate links? Geology assuredly does not reveal any such finely-graduated organic chain; and this, perhaps, is the most obvious and serious objection to my theory.)⁷⁷
美國哈佛大學古生物學教授古爾德(Stephen Jay Gould)評估化石的結論是,「如果進化的要意是解釋一種生物可以漸漸改變成爲另一種生物,那麼化石的顯着特徵就是證明了進化沒有證據。」(In short, if evolution means the gradual change of one kind of organism into another kind, the outstanding characteristic of the fossil record is the absence of evidence for evolution.)⁷⁸
英國古生物學家、化石研究權威專家科林‧帕特森博士(Colin Patterson, 1933—1998)⁷⁹,於1962至1993年在倫敦自然歷史博物館(Natural History Museum)工作。1981年他在一次美國自然歷史博物館(American Museum of Natural History)的演講中提出:「你們誰能告訴我任何關於進化的真正證據,哪怕是一件真正的證據?」(」Can you tell me anything about evolution,」 he asked his listeners, 「any one thing, that is true?」)
1979年4月10日帕特森博士發給美國航空航天工程師路德‧桑德蘭(Luther Sunderland, 1929—)一封信件,標題是:「沒有任何一塊化石能證明進化論!!」(Not one fossil of evidence fossil for evolution!!)內容摘錄如下:
(I fully agree with your comments on the lack of direct illustration of evolutionary transitions in my book. If I knew of any, fossil or living, I would certainly have include them. You suggest that an artist should be asked to visualize such transformations, but where would he get the information from? I could not honestly provide it, and if I were to leave it to artist licence, would not this mislead the reader?
……Yet Gould and the American Museum people are hard to contradict when they say there are no transitional fossils. As a paleontologist myself, I am much occupied with the philosophical problems of identifying ancestral forms in the fossil record. You say that I should at least 「show a photo of the fossil from which each type of organism was derived.」 I will lay it on the line – there is not one such fossil for which one could make a watertight argument. The reason is that statements about ancestry and descent are not applicable in the fossil record.)
1857年,人們在德國西北部尼安德特山谷的石灰岩洞穴中,發現了一些類似人類頭骨和其它骨頭的一些碎片。隨後,德國波恩的解剖學教授沙夫豪森(Prof. Hermann Schaaffhausen, 1816—1893)對低而窄的前額、幾乎連在一起形成水平隆起的極大眉脊、扁平的圓頂和不同尋常的頭骨尺寸感到震驚。他認爲這些遺骸屬於「一個未開化的、野蠻的種族」,可被視爲歐洲最古老的居民⁸³。
沙夫豪森的觀點得到進化假說擁護者托馬斯‧亨利‧赫胥黎(Thomas Henry Huxley, 1825—1895)的支持。赫胥黎一方面承認尼安德特人的頭骨非常接近猿類,另一方面卻仍然認爲可以把它置於從猿猴到人類的進化環節中,認爲找到了猿猴向人進化的中間環節。
1864年,愛爾蘭爵士、解剖學家威廉‧金醫生(Dr. Sir William King, 1809-1886)宣稱那是人類與猿猴之間的猿人,並將其命名爲「尼安德特人(Homo neanderthalensis)」。⁸⁴
然而,同時代的細胞病理學創始人、著名病理學家魯道夫‧維爾嘯教授(Prof. Dr. Rudolf Virchow, 1821—1902)仔細研究之後,認爲那是一個患有關節病的老人的骸骨。維爾嘯拒絕接受把尼安德特人遺骸作爲早期人類的化石證據。⁸⁵
而且,德國慕尼黑大學動物研究所(Zoological Institute, University of Munich)的馬特斯‧克凌斯博士(Dr. Matthias Krings)等人對「尼安德特人」骸骨線粒體DNA(mtDNA)高變區I進行分析,發現「尼安德特人」不是現代人的祖先,認爲尼安德特人在沒有爲現代人類貢獻基因的情況下滅絕了。他們的論文1997年在權威雜誌《細胞學》(Cell)上發表。⁸⁶
原西澳大利亞大學解剖學和人類生物學教授查爾斯‧奧克斯納德(Charles Oxnard)博士對南方古猿化石進行復雜的計算機分析,結論認爲南方古猿與人類的祖先沒有關係,而只是一種已滅絕的猿類。這一結論於1987年發表在華盛頓大學出版的《化石、牙齒和性:人類進化的新視角》書中。(The australopithecines may well have been sibling groups to both the African apes and humans. This is an idea that would remove the australopithecines from being closely related to the human lineage and would place them unequivocally within an evolutionary radiation. Of these lineages, some, australopithecines, became extinct; some African apes, are almost extinct; only one genus, Homo, survives strongly at the present time.)⁹²
1891年,荷蘭內科醫生、解剖學家尤金‧杜巴斯(Prof. Dr. Eugene Dubois, 1858—1940)在印尼爪哇桑吉蘭(Sangiran, Island of Java, Indonesia)河灘內發現一塊頭蓋骨、一塊股骨和三顆牙齒;拼在一起作爲歷史久遠的「爪哇人(Java man)」。
後來,人們對這個標本提出了很多質疑。首先,不清楚這些骨頭是否來自同一物種,很可能是拼湊的。一些科學家認爲杜巴斯的發現只是一隻猿,另一些科學家則認爲這是一具患病的現代骨骼,還有一些人認爲是現代人類股骨和猿人頭蓋骨的混合體。劍橋大學的解剖學家亞瑟‧基思爵士(Sir Arthur Keith, 1866—1955)研究發現,最初發現的頭蓋骨顯然來自當今人類,它的腦容量在當今人類腦容量範圍之內。⁹⁵
始祖盜龍(Archaeoraptor)化石據稱是自始祖鳥化石以來從肉食恐龍進化成鳥的最佳證據。德克薩斯大學奧斯汀分校地質科學系的蒂莫西‧B‧羅(Timothy B. Rowe)博士對來自中國的早白堊世地層產生的始祖盜龍化石的研究2001年3月發表在《自然》上,羅博士的研究發現所謂的化石是僞造品,是一種恐龍的尾巴和一種原始鳥類骨骼的混合物⁹⁹。
這篇文章的共同作者包括地質科學系的科學家理查德‧A‧凱查姆(Richard A. Ketcham)博士和助理研究員馬修‧科爾伯特(Matthew Colbert )博士、前脊椎動物古生物學實驗室的坎布里亞‧丹尼森(Cambria Denison)博士及中國北京中央研究院古脊椎動物、古人類學研究所的徐星(Xing Xu)和位於加拿大艾伯塔省德拉姆赫勒的王家泰瑞爾古生物博物館的菲利普‧J‧柯里(Philip J. Currie)博士。
2021年11月8日,《The Deseret News》報紙發表了題目爲Why this 300 million-year-old fossil discovered in Utah has the paleontology world buzzing的文章¹¹⁰,報導了在猶他州的峽谷地國家公園出土了一個清晰的、3億年前脊椎骨骼遺骸的化石,約1.5英尺(45.72釐米)長,有着類似哺乳動物的脊椎骨,比最古老的恐龍化石還要早5,000萬年。按照達爾文的進化假說,最早有脊椎的哺乳動物是出現在約2.05億年前早侏羅世的摩爾根獸¹¹¹,可是它的身長只有10釐米,和一隻家鼠差不多大小。3億年前怎麼會出現這個這麼巨大的脊椎動物呢?
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